This section introduces the concept of "stage-wise" processes, where changes occur in discrete steps. It uses a generalized model for mass-transfer operations.

Antes de la consolidación del concepto de , las industrias químicas se estudiaban por sectores (por ejemplo, la fabricación de jabón, la producción de ácido sulfúrico o la refinación de petróleo de forma totalmente independiente).

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: Practical tools for designing distillation and extraction columns. Principles of Unit Operations: 9780471268963 - Amazon.com

: Adsorption, gas absorption, and crystallization.